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Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 –
July 2, 1961) was an American novelist and short story writer whose
works, drawn from his wide range of experiences in World War I, the
Spanish Civil War, and World War II, are characterized by terse
minimalism and understatement; they exerted a significant influence on
the development of twentieth century fiction. Hemingway's protagonists
are typically stoic male individuals, often interpreted as projections
of his own character, who must master "grace under pressure". Many of
his works, like The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms and The Old Man
and the Sea, are now considered classics in the canon of American
literature.
Hemingway was part of the 1920s expatriate
community in Paris, known as "The Lost Generation," a name coined and
popularized by Gertrude Stein. Leading a turbulent social life,
Hemingway married four times, apart from various romantic relationships
he formed during his lifetime, and received much media exposure.
Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, seven years
before his death by suicide in 1961.
****
Early life
Hemingway was born at 8:00 A.M. on July 21,
1899 in Oak Park, Illinois, in a six-bedroom Victorian house built by
his maternal grandfather, Ernest Hall, an English immigrant and Civil
War veteran who lived with the family when Ernest was born. Hemingway's
physician father, "Doctor Ed" Clarence Hemingway, attended to the birth
of Ernest and subsequently blew a horn on his front porch, announcing to
the Hemingways' neighbors that his wife had borne a baby boy.
Hemingway was the firstborn son, the second
of six children to Doctor Clarence "Ed" and Grace Hemingway, a homemaker
with considerable singing talent who had once aspired to a career on
stage. She was trained from her youth to sing opera and earned money
through giving voice and music lessons as well as recitals. His mother
was also domineering and devoutly religious, mirroring the strict
Protestant ethic of Oak Park, which Hemingway later said had "wide lawns
and narrow minds". His mother had wanted to bear twins, and when this
did not happen, she dressed young Ernest and his sister Marcelline
(eighteen months his senior) in similar clothes and with similar
hairstyles, maintaining the pretense of the two children being "twins."
Grace Hemingway further feminized Hemingway in his youth by calling him
"Ernestine".
While his mother had ambitions that her son
would develop an interest in music, Hemingway adopted the interests of
his father—hunting and fishing in the woods and lakes of northern
Michigan. Owning a house, called Windemere, on Michigan's Walloon Lake,
his family would often spend summers vacationing in that state. These
early experiences in close contact with nature would instill in
Hemingway a lifelong passion for outdoor adventure and for living in
areas of the world generally considered remote or isolated.
First writing experiences
During his years at Oak Park and River
Forest High School, in addition to being active as a boxer and a
football player, he excelled academically, particularly in English
classes. His first experience with writing came in high school, as he
served as editor for both Trapeze and Tabula, the school's newspaper and
literary magazine, respectively.
When Hemingway graduated from high school,
he did not pursue a college education. Instead, in 1916, when he was 17
years old, his professional writing career began. He earned a position
as a cub reporter for The Kansas City Star. While he remained part of
the staff at that newspaper for only about six months, throughout his
lifetime he used the admonition from the Star's style guide as a
foundation for his manner of writing: "Use short sentences. Use short
first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative".
World War I until the Spanish Civil War
Hemingway left his reporting job after only
a few months, and, against his father's wishes, tried to join the United
States Army to assist in the effort in World War I. He did not pass the
medical examination due to poor vision. Instead, he joined the American
Field Service ambulance Corps and left for Italy, then mired in the war.
En route to the Italian front, he stopped in Paris, which was under
constant bombardment from German artillery. Instead of staying in the
relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Hemingway tried to get as close to
the combat as possible.
Soon after arriving on the Italian front,
he began to witness the brutalities of the war; on his first day of
duty, an ammunition factory near Milan suffered an explosion. Hemingway
had to pick up the human remains, mostly of women who had worked at the
factory. This first and extremely cruel encounter with human death left
him shaken. The soldiers he met later did not lighten the horror; for
example, one of them, Eric Dorman-Smith, quoted to him a line from Part
Two of Shakespeare's Henry IV: By my troth, I care not; a man can die
but once; we owe god a death...and let it go which way it will, he that
dies this year is quit for the next. (Hemingway, for his part, would
conjure this very same Shakespearean line in The Short Happy Life of
Francis Macomber, one of his later famous African short stories.) In
another instance, a 50-year-old soldier, to whom Hemingway said, "You're
troppo vecchio for this war, pop," replied, "I can die as well as any
man".
At the Italian front on July 8, 1918,
Hemingway was wounded delivering supplies to soldiers, ending his career
as an ambulance driver. The exact details of this attack are not known,
but two facts are certain: Hemingway was hit by an Austrian trench
mortar shell which left fragments in both of his legs, and he was
subsequently awarded the Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia
d'argento) from the Italian government. Later transferred to the Italian
infantry, he was seriously injured in combat.
After this experience, Hemingway
convalesced in a Milan hospital run by the American Red Cross. There he
was to meet a nurse, Sister Agnes von Kurowsky of Washington, D.C., one
of 18 nurses attending groups of 4 patients each. Hemingway fell in love
with Kurowsky, who was more than 6 years older than him, but this first
relationship did not last. After he returned to the United States, she
fell in love with and married another man.
Literary aftermath of WWI
First novels and other early works
Once discharged from the Italian army,
Hemingway returned to Oak Park. In 1920, he took a job in Toronto,
Canada at the Toronto Star as a freelancer, staff writer, and foreign
correspondent. About this time, Hemingway met Canada's young literary
prodigy Morley Callaghan, who also was a cub reporter at the same paper.
Callaghan, who respected Hemingway's work, showed his own stories to him
and Hemingway praised it as fine work.
In 1921, Hemingway married his first wife,
Hadley Richardson. Not long after the two were married, Hemingway indeed
had a scandalous affair with a woman by the name of Deborah Houston.
They truly were in love, but Hemingway could not at the time go through
with pursuing the relationship. On the other hand, the Hemingways
decided to live abroad for a time, and, at the advice of Sherwood
Anderson, they settled, along with Morley Callaghan and F. Scott
Fitzgerald, in Paris; there Hemingway covered the Greco-Turkish War for
the Star. After the 1922 publication and American banning of colleague
James Joyce's Ulysses, Hemingway used Toronto-based friends to smuggle
copies of the novel into the United States. Hemingway's own first book,
called Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923), was published in Paris by
Robert McAlmon. In the same year, during a brief return to Toronto,
Hemingway's first son, John, was born. Busy supporting a family, he
became bored with the Toronto Star and resigned on January 1, 1924.
Hemingway's American debut in literature is
often associated with the publication of the short story collection In
Our Time (1925). The vignettes that now constitute the interchapters of
the American version were initially published in Europe as in our time
(1924). This work was important for Hemingway, reaffirming to him that
his minimalist style could be accepted by the literary community. "The
Big Two-Hearted River" is the collection's best-known story.
After Hemingway's return to Paris, Anderson
gave him a letter of introduction to Gertrude Stein. She became his
mentor and introduced Hemingway to the "Parisian Modern Movement" then
ongoing in Montparnasse Quarter; this was the beginnings of the American
expatriate circle that became known as the Lost Generation, a term
coined by Stein. The group often frequented Sylvia Beach's bookshop,
Shakespeare & Co., at 18 Rue de l'Odéon. Hemingway's other influential
mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of imagism. Hemingway later said in
reminiscence of this eclectic group: Ezra was right half the time, and
when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it.
Gertrude was always right.
Hemingway's favorite restaurant in
Montparnasse was La Closerie des Lilas. It was here, in just over 6
weeks, that he wrote his second novel, The Sun Also Rises (1926). The
novel, semi-autobiographical in that it follows a group of expatriate
Americans in Europe, was successful and was met with much critical
acclaim. While Hemingway had initially claimed that the novel was an
obsolete form of literature, he was apparently inspired to write one
after reading Fitzgerald's manuscript for The Great Gatsby.
Hemingway divorced Hadley Richardson and
married Pauline Pfeiffer, a devout Roman Catholic from Piggott,
Arkansas, in 1927. That year saw the publication of Men Without Women, a
collection of short stories, containing "The Killers," one of
Hemingway's best-known and most-anthologized stories.
In 1928, Hemingway's father, Clarence,
troubled with diabetes and financial instabilities, committed suicide
using an old Civil War pistol. This suicide was a great pain to
Hemingway; he immediately traveled to Oak Park to arrange the funeral.
Another suicide was of Harry Crosby, founder of the Black Sun Press and
friend of Hemingway from his days in Paris.
Also in 1928 Hemingway's second son,
Patrick, was born in Kansas City. It was a Caesarean birth after
difficult labor, details that were incorporated into the concluding
scene of his novel.
The last important work associated with the
period following World War I is Hemingway's third novel, A Farewell to
Arms (1929). It details the romance between Frederic Henry, an American
soldier, and Catherine Barkley, a British nurse. The novel is heavily
autobiographical in nature: the plot is directly inspired by his
experience with Sister von Kurowsky in Milan; the intense labor pains of
his second wife, Pauline, in the birth of Hemingway's son Patrick
inspired Catherine's labor in the novel; the real-life Kitty Cannell
inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don
Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the
Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is
mysterious, curiously, he had already appeared in In Our Time.
A Farewell to Arms was published at a time
when many other World War I books were prominent, including Frederic
Manning's Her Privates We, Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the
Western Front, Richard Aldington's Death of a Hero, and Robert Graves'
Goodbye to All That. A Farewell to Arms's success rendered Hemingway
essentially independent financially.
The (First) Forty Nine Stories
Several of Hemingway's most famous short
stories were written in the period following the war; in 1938—along with
his only full-length play, entitled The Fifth Column—49 such stories
were published in the collection The Fifth Column and the First
Forty-Nine Stories. Hemingway's intention was, as he openly stated in
his own foreword to the collection, to write more. Many of the stories
that make up this collection can be found in other abridged collections,
including In Our Time, Men Without Women, Winner Take Nothing, and The
Snows of Kilimanjaro.
Some of the collection's important stories
include: Old Man at the Bridge, On The Quai at Smyrna, Hills Like White
Elephants, One Reader Writes, The Killers and (perhaps most famously) A
Clean, Well-Lighted Place. While these stories are rather short, the
book also includes much longer stories. Among these the most famous are
The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber.
Only one other story collection by
Hemingway appeared during his lifetime, entitled Four Stories Of The
Spanish Civil War; "The Denunciation" is the most notable story therein.
The Nick Adams Stories appeared posthumously in 1972. What is now
considered the definitive compilation of all of Hemingway's short
stories is published as The Complete Short Stories Of Ernest Hemingway,
first compiled and published in 1987.
Early critical interplay
Hemingway's early works sold well and were
generally received favorably by critics. This success elicited some
crude and pretentious behavior from Hemingway, even in these formative
years of his career. For example, he began to tell F. Scott Fitzgerald
how to write; he also claimed that the English novelist Ford Madox Ford
was sexually impotent. Hemingway in turn was the subject of much
criticism. The journal Bookman attacked him as a dirty writer. According
to Fitzgerald, McAlmon, the publisher of his first non-commercial book,
labeled Hemingway "a fag and a wife-beater" and claimed that Pauline was
a lesbian. Gertrude Stein criticized him in her book The Autobiography
of Alice B. Toklas, suggesting that he had derived his prose style from
her own and from Sherwood Anderson's.
Max Eastman disparaged Hemingway harshly,
asking him to "come out from behind that false hair on the chest."
Eastman would go on to write an essay entitled Bull in the Afternoon, a
satire of Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon. Another facet of Eastman's
criticism consisted in the suggestion that Hemingway ought to give up
his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and write about contemporary social
affairs. Hemingway did so for at least a short time; his article Who
Murdered the Vets? for New Masses, a leftist magazine, and To Have and
Have Not displayed a certain heightened social awareness.
Key West
Following the advice of John Dos Passos,
Hemingway moved to Key West, Florida where he established his first
American home. From his old stone house—a wedding present from Pauline's
uncle—Hemingway fished in the Dry Tortugas waters, went to the famous
bar Sloppy Joe's, and traveled occasionally to Spain, gathering material
for Death in the Afternoon and Winner Take Nothing.
Death in the Afternoon a book about
bullfighting, was published in 1932. Hemingway had become a bullfighting
aficionado after seeing the Pamplona fiesta of 1925, fictionalized in
The Sun Also Rises. In Death in the Afternoon, Hemingway extensively
discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting: the ritualized, almost
religious practice. In his writings on Spain he was influenced by the
Spanish master Pío Baroja (when Hemingway won the Nobel Prize, he
traveled to see Baroja, then on his death bed, specifically to tell him
that he thought Baroja deserved the prize more than him).
A safari in the fall of 1932 led him to
Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in the Mua Hills. In Spain reporting on
the Spanish Civil War, Hemingway broke friendship with John Dos Passos
because Dos Passos kept reporting despite warning on the atrocities, not
only of the Fascists who Hemingway disliked, but also of the Republicans
who Hemingway favored ("The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and
the Murder of Jose Robles" by Stephen Koch, published 2005ISBN:
1582432805) and The Spanish Civil War (1961) by Hugh Thomas). The story
"The Denunciation" seems autobiographical, thus suggesting that the
author might have been an informant for the Republic as well as weapons
instructor (The Spanish Civil War (1961) by Hugh Thomas). 1935 saw the
publication of Green Hills of Africa, an account of his African safari.
The Snows of Kilimanjaro and The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber
were the fictionalized results of his African experiences.
Some health problems characterized this
period of Hemingway's life: an anthrax infection, a cut eyeball, a gash
in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids; kidney trouble from
fishing in Spain, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an
accident with a punching ball, lacerations (to arms, legs, and face)
from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, and a
broken arm from a car accident.
For Whom the Bell Tolls
Francisco Franco won the Spanish Civil War
in the spring of 1939. Hemingway had lost an adopted homeland to
Franco's fascist nationalists, and would later lose his beloved Key
West, Florida home due to his 1940 divorce. A few weeks after the
divorce Hemingway married his third wife, Martha Gellhorn. His novel For
Whom The Bell Tolls was published in 1940; the long work, which takes
place during the Spanish Civil War, based on real events (The Spanish
Civil War Hugh Thomas) tells of an American man named "Robert Jordan"
fighting with Spanish guerrillas on the side of the Republicans. It is
one of Hemingway's most notable literary accomplishments.
World War II and its aftermath
The United States entered World War II on
December 8, 1941, and for the first time in his life, Hemingway is known
to have taken an active part in a war.
Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, Hemingway's
crew was charged with sinking Nazi submarines threatening the shipping
of the coasts of Cuba and the United States, though there were actually
far more professional and successful activities carried out by the US
and Cuban navies. As the FBI took over Caribbean counter-espionage, he
went to Europe, first as war correspondent for Collier's magazine.
Hemingway took part in the D-Day invasion
of France as a correspondent on a landing craft. Later, at
Villedieu-les-Poêles, France, he threw three grenades into a cellar
where SS officers were hiding. It was the first time he had killed a
man. Seemingly encouraged, he declared he would be an unofficial
intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at
Château de Rambouillet, and afterwards, formed his own partisan group
which took part in the liberation of Paris, France. Some have argued
that Hemingway was trying to emulate the characters he had created in
his fiction.
After the war, Hemingway started work on
The Garden of Eden, which was never finished and would be published
posthumously in much abridged form in 1986. At one stage he planned a
major trilogy which was to be comprised of "The Sea When Young", "The
Sea When Absent" and "The Sea in Being" (the latter eventually published
in 1953 as The Old Man and the Sea). There was also a "Sea-Chase" story;
three of these pieces were edited and stuck together as the posthumously
published novel Islands in the Stream (1970).
Hemingway's first novel after For Whom the
Bell Tolls was Across the River and Into the Trees (1950), set in World
War II Venice. He derived the title from the last words of General
Stonewall Jackson. In Across the River and Into the Trees, his
now-divorced third wife appeared as the third wife of the protagonist,
Adriana Ivancich, as in his lover Renata (which means "Reborn" in
Latin). The novel received poor reviews, many of which accused Hemingway
of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude and sentimentality. Perhaps the last
charge was most true, and fit an emerging pattern: Hemingway was growing
old.
Later years
One section of the above-mentioned sea
trilogy was published as The Old Man and the Sea in 1952. That novella's
enormous success satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the
last time in his life. It earned him both the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 and
the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, and restored his international
reputation.
Then, his legendary bad luck struck once
again; on a safari he was in two successive plane crashes. Hemingway's
injuries were serious; he sprained his right shoulder, arm, and left
leg, had a grave concussion, temporarily lost vision in his left eye and
hearing in his left ear, had paralysis of the sphincter, a crushed
vertebra, ruptured liver, spleen and kidney, and first degree burns on
his face, arms, and leg.
As if this were not enough, he was badly
injured one month later in a bushfire accident which left him with
second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right
forearm. The pain left him in prolonged anguish, and he was unable to
travel to Stockholm to accept his Nobel Prize.
A glimmer of hope came with the discovery
of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were
transformed into A Moveable Feast. Although some of his energy seemed to
be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down. His blood pressure
and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from aortal
inflammation, and his depression, aggravated by alcoholism, was
worsening.
He also lost his Finca Vigía, his estate
outside Havana, Cuba that he had owned for over twenty years, and was
forced to "exile" to Ketchum, Idaho, when the situation in Cuba began to
escalate. The famous photograph of Fidel Castro and Hemingway, nominally
related to a fishing competition which Castro won, is believed to
document a conversation in which Hemingway begged for the return of his
estate and Castro ignored him.
His very last years, 1960 and 1961, were
marked by severe paranoia. He feared FBI agents would be after him if
Cuba turned to the Russians, that the "Feds" (Burgess (9.), p. ??) would
be checking his bank account, and that they wanted to arrest him for
gross immorality and carrying alcohol. The FBI was in fact surveying
Hemingway due to his activities in Cuba.
On 26 February 1960, Ernest Hemingway was
not able to get his novel The Dangerous Summer to the publishers.
Therefore, he had his wife, Mary Welsh Hemingway summon his friend, LIFE
Magazine Bureau Head, Will Lang Jr. to leave Paris and come to Spain.
Hemingway persuaded Will Lang Jr. to let him print the manuscript, along
with a picture layout before it came out in hardcover. Although not a
word of it was on paper, Ernest agreed to the proposal. The first part
of story appeared in LIFE Magazine on September 5, 1960. The other
installments were printed on the following issues of LIFE.
Hemingway was upset by perfectly normal
photographs in his The Dangerous Summer article. He was receiving
treatment in Ketchum, Idaho for high blood pressure and liver
problems—and also electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for depression and his
continued paranoia.
Hemingway was friendly with the World War
II British General Eric Dorman-Smith, who was a godfather to one of his
children.
Death
Hemingway attempted suicide in the spring
of 1961, and received ECT treatment again, but this was unable to
prevent his suicide on the morning of July 2, 1961 as a result of a
self-inflicted shotgun blast to the head at the age of 61. Prior to his
suicide, Hemingway is known to have blamed his loss of self on ECT.
Many members of Hemingway's immediate
family also committed suicide, including his father, Clarence Hemingway,
and his siblings Ursula and Leicester. It is believed that some members
of Hemingway's paternal line had a genetic condition or hereditary
disease known as haemochromatosis, in which an excess of iron
concentration in the blood causes damage to the pancreas and depression
or instability in the cerebrum. Hemingway's physician father is known to
have developed bronze diabetes due to this condition in the years prior
to his suicide at age fifty-nine.
Hemingway is said to have donated his
entire Cuban estate to Fidel Castro. However, considering that Castro
confiscated all US property, it is widely believed that Castro took La
Vigia estate, and that the famous photograph of Castro and Hemingway
relates to an attempt of Hemingway to recover his property. Regardless,
Hemingway did not stay on the Island and never returned to Cuba. He is
interred in the Ketchum Cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho. The local public
elementary school there is named in his honor. In 1996, his
granddaughter, actress Margaux Hemingway, would take her own life with a
drug overdose; she is interred in the same cemetery.
Posthumous publications
Hemingway was still writing new works up to
the time of his death in 1961. All of these unfinished works which were
Hemingway's sole creation have been published posthumously; they are
Islands in the Stream, The Dangerous Summer, and The Garden of Eden. In
a note forwarding "Islands in the Stream" Mary Hemingway indicated that
she worked with Charles Scribner, Jr. on "preparing this book for
publication from Ernest's original manuscript." In that note she stated
that "beyond the routine chores of correcting spelling and punctuation,
we made some cuts in the manuscript, I feeling that Ernest would surely
have made them himself. The book is all Ernest's. We have added nothing
to it." Controversy has surrounded the publication of these works,
insofar as it has been suggested that it is not necessarily within the
jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether
these works should be made available to the public. For example,
scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of The Garden of
Eden published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1986, though in no way a
revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless does not include
some two-thirds of the original manuscript. In 1999, another novel
entitled True at First Light appeared under the name of Ernest
Hemingway, though it was heavily edited by his son Patrick Hemingway.
The Associated Press reported in February
2005 on the progress of what is purported to be the final work to be
posthumously published that was written by Hemingway. Entitled Under
Kilimanjaro, the novel is a fictional account of Hemingway's final
African safari in 1953–1954. He spent several months in Kenya with his
fourth wife, Mary, before his near-fatal plane crashes took place.
Anticipation of the novel, whose manuscript was completed in 1956,
adumbrates perhaps an unprecedentedly large critical battle over whether
it is proper to publish the work (many sources mention that a new, light
side of Hemingway will be seen as opposed to his canonical, macho
image), even as editors Robert W. Lewis of University of North Dakota
and Robert E. Fleming of University of New Mexico have pushed it through
to publication; the novel was published on September 15 2005.
Also published after Hemingway's death were
several collections of his work as a journalist. These collections
contain his columns and articles for Esquire Magazine, The North
American Newspaper Alliance, and the Toronto Star; they include Byline:
Ernest Hemingway edited by William White, and Hemingway: The Wild Years
edied by Gene Z. Hanrahan.
Influence and legacy
The influence of Hemingway's writings on
American literature was considerable and continues to exist today.
Indeed, the influence of Hemingway's style was so widespread that it may
be glimpsed in most contemporary fiction, as writers draw inspiration
either from Hemingway himself or indirectly through writers who more
consciously emulated Hemingway's style. In his own time, Hemingway
affected writers within his modernist literary circle. James Joyce
called "A Clean, Well Lighted Place" "one of the best stories ever
written". Pulp fiction and "hard boiled" crime fiction (which flourished
from the 1920s to the 1950s) often owed a strong debt to Hemingway.
Hemingway's terse prose style is known to
have inspired Bret Easton Ellis, Chuck Palahniuk, Douglas Coupland and
many Generation X writers. Hemingway's style also influenced Jack
Kerouac and other Beat Generation writers. J.D. Salinger is said to have
wanted to be a great American short story writer in the same vein as
Hemingway.
In Latin American literature, Hemingway's
impact can perhaps best be seen in the work of Gabriel García Márquez,
who, for instance, often uses the sea as a central image in his fiction.
Science fiction novelist Joe Haldeman won
the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award for his novella, The Hemingway Hoax,
a story which explored the effect that Hemingway's lost stories might
have had upon 20th century history.
Awards and honors
During his lifetime Hemingway was awarded
with:
Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia
d'argento) in World War I
Bronze Star (War Correspondent-Military
Irregular in World War II) in 1947
Pulitzer Prize in 1953 (for The Old Man and
the Sea)
Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 (The Old
Man and the Sea cited as a reason for the award)
Trivia
Sailors were long-known to especially value
polydactyl cats (which have extra toes as a genetic trait) for their
extraordinary climbing and hunting abilities as an aid in controlling
shipboard rodents. Some sailors also considered them to be extremely
good luck when at sea. Hemingway was one of the more famous lovers of
polydactyl cats. He was first given a six-toed cat by a ship's captain.
As provided in his will, his former home in Key West, Florida (which is
now a popular museum) currently houses approximately sixty descendents
of his cats, approximately 50% of whom are polydactyl.
Works
Novels
(1925) The Torrents of Spring
(1926) The Sun Also Rises
(1929) A Farewell to Arms
(1937) To Have and Have Not
(1940) For Whom the Bell Tolls
(1950) Across the River and Into the Trees
(1952) The Old Man and the Sea
(1962) Adventures of a Young Man
(1970) Islands in the Stream (Hemingway)
(1986) The Garden of Eden
(1999) True at First Light
(2005) Under Kilimanjaro
Nonfiction
(1932) Death in the Afternoon
(1935) Green Hills of Africa
(1960) The Dangerous Summer
(1964) A Moveable Feast
Short story collections
(1923) Three Stories and Ten Poems
(1925) In Our Time
(1927) Men Without Women
(1932) The Snows of Kilimanjaro
(1933) Winner Take Nothing
(1938) The Fifth Column and the First
Forty-Nine Stories
(1947) The Essential Hemingway
(1953) The Hemingway Reader
(1972) The Nick Adams Stories
(1976) The Complete Short Stories of Ernest
Hemingway
(1995) Collected Stories
Film
(1937) The Spanish Earth
(1962) Adventures Of A Young Man is based
on Hemingway's Nick Adams stories. (also known as Hemingway's Adventures
Of A Young Man.)
Notes
^ From Childhood at The Hemingway Resource
Center.
^ Three different sources disagree on how
long this habit of his mother's lasted. A note from a PBS lecture series
states that it lasted for two years; Grauer claims she stopped when he
was 6; Juan's analysis suggests that her treatment continued "well into
his teens;" he also claims that at times she would attempt to liken
Hemingway to his older sister Marcelline.
^ A large list of such anecdotes are
compiled at the centennial commemoration page of the Kansas City Star.
^ Burgess, 1978, p. 24.
^ Ibid.
^ On August 10, 1943, Hemingway typed a
letter to Archibald MacLeish discussing Pound's mental health and other
literary matters.
^ In a conversation with John Peale
Bishop, quoted in Hemingway, Cowley, ed, 1944, p. xiii.
^ Burgess, 1978, p. 57.
^ Ibid.
^ Information about these posthumous
Hemingway works was taken from Charles Scribner, Jr.'s 1987 Preface to
The Garden of Eden.
^ BookRags makes this quantitative note;
it also reveals some more information about the publication of The
Garden of Eden and offers some discussion of thematic content.
^ The Kent State University Press is the
official source for this new novel's release.
^ See the University of North Dakota
feature of editor Robert W. Lewis, for example.
References
Berridge, H.R. (1990). Barron's Book Notes
on Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms, Stuttgart: Klett. ISBN
0812034120.
Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway: The Writer
as Artist, Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691013055.
Baker, Carlos, ed (1962). Ernest Hemingway:
Critiques of Four Major Novels, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN
0684411571.
Biography. The Hemingway Resource Center.
URL accessed on April 12, 2005.
Burgess, Anthony (1978). Ernest Hemingway
and His World. Norwich: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0684185040.
Hemingway, Ernest, Carlos Baker, ed (1981).
Selected Letters 1917-1961, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN
0743246896.
Hemingway, Ernest, Malcolm Cowley, ed
(1944). Hemingway (The Viking Portable Library), New York: The Viking
Press. ASIN B0007DNS9K.
Koch, Stephen (2005). The Breaking Point:
Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles, New York:
Counterpoint Press. ISBN 1582432805.
Lynn, Kenneth Schuyler (1995). Hemingway,
Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674387325.
Young, Philip (1952). Ernest Hemingway, New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. ISBN 0816601917.
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